CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
TO MORPHOLOGY AND LANGUAGE CHANGE
• Morphology
is concerned with the internal structure of words and the
rules for
forming words from their subparts, which are called
morphemes.
• Morphemes
are the smallest units in the structural analysis of words.
[[[ green ]
ish ] ness] [un [break [able]]]It is often said that morphemes are the smallest
units of meaning, butthis is not quite accurate. They are the smallest
structural units thelearner identifies; to be identified as such a morpheme
must have anidentifiable grammatical behavior, but not necessarily an
identifiable meaning.
[ trans [ mit
]] [ trans [ miss ]] ion]
[ per [ mit ]]
[ per [ miss ]] ion]
• Although we
know that the subparts of these words once had constant
meanings (L
trāns ‘across, per ‘through’, cum ‘with’, mitt-ere ‘to send’)
the learner of
contemporary English does not know this (ordinarily).
• In any case
the words don’t mean ‘send across, send, through, send with’
• However, the
root [mit] shows an identifiable contanst grammatical
behavior: it
changes to [miss] when the verb is used to make the corresponding noun through
suffixation of [-ion]
2 Open and
Closed Class Items
• Morphemes
are divided into two types: open class and closed class
• Open class
items belong to categories/types to which new members may be freely added
• For example,
you certainly don’t know all the ‘nouns’ in English, and even if you did, new
words come into use all the time to refer to things recently created,
discovered or named:
quark, google,
blog, tweet, grunge
• Closed class
items on the other hand belong to categories/types to which new members cannot
be added
• For example,
plural agreement in English is normally expressed with [-s], as is 3rd person
singular present tense agreement.
• The
agreement morphemes are a closed class: new agreement morphemes cannot be added
to an adult’s grammar.
• Similarly
the modal verbs do, did, have, be, may, might, shall, should, will, would,
can, could, ought form a closed class in English. These are the only
verbs which can precede negation not or n’t in Modern English:
I did not see
the movie.
*I saw not the
movie (archaic)
I (should)
think not! (‘frozen’ expression: cannot be altered)
Closed class
items are often called ‘functional’ items because they
typically have
a grammatical function such as showing agreement, or marking or changing the
category of other items to which they attach. [[quark] s] [[google] ed]
[[tweet] ing] [[grunge] y ] ness]
Inversely,
open class items are sometimes called lexical because they form part of a
vocabulary that must be memorized. (This use of lexicon to mean open-class
vocabulary differs from some otheruses of the term, however!)
Recent
work in sociolinguistics has raised once again a long-standing question: can
linguistic change be observed while it is actually occuring? In modern
linguistics the answer to that question has usually been a resounding negative.
Following the example of two of the founders of the modern discipline, Saussure
(1959) and Bloomfield (1933), most linguist have maintained that change itself
cannot be observed; all that you can possibly hope to observe are the
consequences of change. The important consequences are those that make some
kind of difference to the structure of a language. At any particular time, it
certainly may be possible for linguists to observe variation in language, but
that variation is of little importance. As indicated earlier, such variation
was to be ascribed either to dialect mixture, that is, to a situation in which
two or more system have a degree of overlap, or to free variation, that is, to
unprincipled or random variation. Only in recent years have some of them seen
in it a possible key to understanding not only how languages are distributed in
society, but also how that distribution may help us to understand how change
occurs in language.
CHAPTER II
A.
Definision Morphology
Morphology
according to wikipedia is identification , analysis and description of the
structure of morphemes and other units of meaning in the language like words,
affixes, and part of speech and intonation/stress, implied context ( word in
lexicon are the subject metter of lexicology).
Morpholgy
according to Dr. C. George Boeree is Morphology is the study of morphemes,
obviously. Morphemes are words, word stems, and affixes, basically the
unit of language one up from phonemes. Although they are often understood as
units of meaning, they are usually considered a part of a language's syntax or
grammar. It is specifically grammatical morphemes that this chapter will
focus on.
Morphology
according to Hadi Rukkiyah
is Morphology or morphemic means learning how to form words
(word-organization). It is a branch of linguistics which deals with the
organization of phonemes into meaningful groups called morphs. A morph is the
smallest meaningful part of language.
- Definision of Language Change
Language
Change according to wikipedia is Languages change, usually very slowly,
sometimes very rapidly. There are many reasons a language might
change. One obvious reason is interaction with other languages.
Language
Change according to William Caxton is (ca. 1415~1422 – ca. March 1492)
was an English merchant, diplomat, writer
and printer. As far as is
known, he was the first English person to work as a printer and the first to
introduce a printing press into
England. He was also the first English retailer of printed books (his London
contemporaries in the same trade were all Dutch, German or French).
CHAPTER III
CONTENT
In many
language, what appear to be single form actually turn out contain a large
number of ‘word-like’ elements. For example, in swahili ( spoken throughout
East Africa), the form nitacupenda conveys what, in English, would have
to be represented as something like i will love you. Now, is the swahili
form a single word? If it is a ‘word’ then it seems to consist of a number
elements which ,in English. Turn up a separate ‘wod’. A very rough
correspondence can be presented in the following way:
Ni
–ta –ku -penda
I
will you love
It seems as if
the swahili ‘word’ is rather different from what we think of as an English
‘word’’ Yet, there clearly is some similarity between the languages, in that
similar elements of the whole message can befound in both. Perhaps a better way
of looking at linguistic forms in different languages would be to use this
notion of elements in the message, rather than to dipend on identifying
‘word’. The type of exercise we have just performed is an example of
investigating forms in language generally known as morphology. This term, which
literally means ‘the study of form’, was originally used in biology, but,
since, the mid nineteenth century, has also been used to describe that type of
investigation which analyzes all those basic ‘elements’ which are used in a
language.
Morphology in
the tme thechild 3 years old, he or she going beyound telegraphic speech forms
and incorporating some of the inflectional morphemes with grammatical function
of the noun and verb. The first to appears is the usually the –ing form.
For example cat sitting and mommy reading book. Then comes to
marking of plural with the –s as boys and cats. When the
alternative pronunciation of the plural morphemused in house ( i.e ending
|-ez|) comes into use. It too is given on overgeneralized application and form
such as boyses or footses can appear. At the some time as this
overgeneraization is taking place. It also begin using irregular plurals such
as men quite appropriately for a while, but then try out the general rule on
the forms producing expressions like some mens and two feets/ even two feetses.
The use
possesive inflections –‘s occurs in expressions such as girls and mummy’s book
and the different forms of the verb ‘to be’, such as are and was,
turn up . The appearanceof forms such as was and, at about the
same time, went and came should be noted. These are
irregular past tense forms which one would not expect to appear before the more
regular forms. However, they do typically precede the appearance of the –ed inflection.
Once the regular past tense forms begin appearing in the child’s speech ( e.g.
walked, played ), then, interestingly, the irregular forms disappear for a
white and are replaced by over generalized versions such as goed and comed.
For a period, there is often minor chaos as the –ed inflection
is added to everything , producing such oddities as walkeded and wanted.
As with the plural forms, however the child works out, finally , the
regular –s marker on third person singular present tense verb appears it occurs
intially with full verbs (comes, looks ) and then with auxiliaries (does, has )
Throughout
this sequence there is, of course, a great deal of variability, individual
children may produce ‘good’ forms comes day and ‘odd’ forms the next. It is
important to remember that hte child is working out how to use linguistic
system while actually using it as a means of communication. For the child, the
use of forms such as goed and foots is simply a means of trying to
say what he or she means during particular stage of development. The embrassed
present who insist that the child didn’t hear such things at home are
implicitly recognizing that ‘ imitation’ is not the primary force in child
language acquisition.
C.
Language Change
Languages
change, usually very slowly, sometimes very rapidly. There are many
reasons a language might change. One obvious reason is interaction with
other languages. If one tribe of people trades with another, they will
pick up specific words and phrases for trade objects, for example. If a
small but powerful tribe subdues a larger one, we find that the language of the
elite often shows the influence of constant interaction with the majority,
while the majority language imports vocabulary and speaking styles from the
elite language. Often one or the other simply disappears, leaving behind
a profoundly altered "victor." English is, in fact, an example
of this: The Norman French of the conquerers has long disappeared, but
not before changing Anglo-Saxon into, well, a highly Frenchified English.
The
historical development of English is usually divided into three major periods.
The old English period is considered to iast from the time of the earliest
written records,the seventh century, to the end of the eleventh century. The
Middle English period is from 1100 to 1500 and Modern English from 1500 to the
present.
Example
of a very influential people:
Around 5000
bc, between the Danube river valley and the steppes of what is now the Ukraine,
there lived small tribes of primitive farmers who all spoke the same
language. They cultivated rye and oats, and kept pigs, geese, and
cows. They would soon become the first people on earth to tame the local
wild horses -- an accomplishment that would make them a significant part of
history for thousands of years to come.
By examining
the oldest examples of modern and classical languages such as Greek, Latin, and
Sanskrit, linguists have been able to reconstruct an educated guess as to what
the language of these ancient people was like. They call the language
Proto-Indo-European. The work that went into reconstructing
Proto-Indo-European has led to efforts to reconstruct other prehistorical
language ancestors as well.
Latin Latin
|
Italian Italia
|
Spanish Spanyol
|
Portuguese Portugis
|
French Prancis
|
English Bahasa Inggris
|
dicto dicto
|
detto detto
|
dicho Dicho
|
dito Dito
|
dit dit
|
said kata
|
lacte lacte
|
latte latte
|
leche Leche
|
leite Leite
|
lait lait
|
milk susu
|
lecto lecto
|
letto letto
|
lecho lecho
|
leito leito
|
lit menyala
|
bed tidur
|
nocte nocte
|
notte notte
|
noche noche
|
noite noite
|
nuit Nuit
|
night malam
|
So one
"rule" could be that a "difficult" combination of letters
like -ct- change in certain ways to end up "simpler." In most
of the descendent languages, it just became -t-; in Spanish, it became
ch. Another example: Words that began with pl-, cl-, or fl- in
Latin changed in a systematic way as well. In this case the initial
consonant combinations "simplified" in different ways in Italian,
Spanish, and Portuguese, but remained the same in French. In Italian, the
l became an i, in Spanish they became ll (pronounced like y), and in Portuguese
they became ch (pronounced like sh):
Latin
|
Italian
|
Spanish
|
Portuguese
|
French
|
English
|
Pleno
|
pieno
|
Lleno
|
Cheio
|
Plein
|
Full
|
Clave
|
chiave
|
Llave
|
Chave
|
Clef
|
Key
|
Flamma
|
fiamma
|
Llama
|
Chama
|
flamme
|
Flame
|
Over time, the
linguists learned the patterns of change, and have used them to reconstruct
languages whose original versions we no longer have any record of -- such as
Proto-Indo-European! They are able to use some of the oldest versions of
the different branches of the Indo-European languages as a foundation:
English
|
Sanskrit
|
Greek
|
Latin
|
Old Irish
|
Gothic
|
Lithuanian
|
Old Church Slavic
|
four
|
chaturtha
|
tettares
|
Quattuor
|
cethair
|
fidwor
|
Keturi
|
chetyre
|
five
|
Pancha
|
pente
|
Quinque
|
Coic
|
Fimf
|
Penki
|
Peti
|
mother
|
Maatra
|
mater
|
Mater
|
mathir
|
modhir
|
Mote
|
Mati
|
brother
|
Bhrataa
|
phrater
|
Fratera
|
brathair
|
brothar
|
Brolis
|
bratu
|
These examples
are nowhere near as obviously related -- but they are, in fact, related.
The words for brother are clearer than the others: You can see that the
first sound varies between b, bh (a breathy b), ph (a breathy p), and f.
The first vowel varies between a and o. The middle consonant varies between
t and th. In all but the last two languages, the words end in some
variation of ar or er. Notice that the examples include Sanskrit
(ancestor of the languages of northern India), Greek, Old Irish, and
Lithuanian! Gothic is the oldest recorded version of the Germanic
languages, and Old Church Slavic the oldest of the Slavic languages. There are,
in fact, even more relatives, including Albanian, Armenian, the languages of
Iran, and many languages which haven't survived.
By examining
the patterns in many languages and many words, linguists have reconstructed the
Proto-Indo-European forms of these and many other words:
Proto-indoeuropean
|
Kwetwer
|
Mater
|
Bhrater
|
For a few more examples, here are the reconstructed
Proto-Indo-European numbers from one to ten:
oino, dwo,
trei, kwetker, penkwe, sweks, sept, oktou, newn, dekm.
Old English
The primary
sources for what developed as the English language were Germanic language
spoken by a group of tribes from northern Europe which invaded the Britis Isles
in the fifth century A.D. In one early account,these tribes of Angles. Saxons
and Jutes were described as” God’s wrath toward Britain’’. From this early
variety of Englisc, we have many of the most basic terms in our language: mann
(man), wif (woman ), cild (child), hus (house), mete (food), etan (eat),
drincan (drink) and feohtan (fight). By all account,these pagan settlers
certainly liked feohtan. However, they did nit remain pagan for long.
From he sixth to the eighth century, there was an extended period in
which these Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity and a number of term
from the language of religion, Latin, came into English at that time. The
origins of the modern word angel, bishop, candle, chruch, martyr, priest and
school all date from his period. From the eighth century throughtthe ninth
and tenth centuries, another grup of northern Europeans came first to plunder,
and eventually to settle in parts of the coastal regions of Britain. They were
the vikings and it is from their language. Old Norse, that we derived the forms
which gave us a number of common modern terms such as give, law, leg, skin,
sky, take, and they.
Middle English
The event which more than anything marks the
end of the Old English period, and the beginning of the Middle English
period.is the arrival of the Norman French in England, following their victory
at Hastings under William the Conueror in 1066. These French-speaking invaders
proceeded to take over the whole of England. They became the rulling class, so
that the language of the nobility, the goverment, the law and civilized
behavior in England for the next two hundredyears was French. It is the source
of such modern term as army, coutr, defense, faith and tax.
Yet the language
of the peasants remained English. The peasantworked of the land and reared sheep,
cows, and swine (words from Old English),while the French-speaking
upper classes ate mutton,beef and ork ( word of French origin ).
Hence the different word in modern English to refer to these creatures ‘on the
hoof as opposed to’on the late’.
Throughout
this period, French (or,more accurately, an English version of French)was the
prestige language and Chaucer tells us that ne of his Centerbury pilgrims could
spek it. This is an example of Middle English, written in the late fourteenth
century. It has changed were yet to take, place before the language took
on its modern form. Most significantly : the vowel sounds of chaucer’s
time were very different from those we hear in similar word today. Chaucer
lived in what would have sounded like a ‘hoos’, with his ‘weef’ and hay , would
romance ‘heer’ with a bottle of ‘weena’ drunk by the light of the ‘moan’.
In the two hundred years, from 1400 to 1600, which separated Chaucer and
Shakespeare, the sounds of English pronunciation. Whereas the types of borrowed
words we have already noted are exampleof external change in a language, many
of the following examples can be seens as internal changes within the
historical development of English.
Types of
language change
All languages
change constantly, and do so in many and varied ways. Each generation notes how
other generations "talk funny". Marcel Cohen details various types of
language change under the overall headings of the external evolution and
internal evolution of languages.
Lexical
changes
The study of
lexical changes forms the diachronic
portion of the science of onomasiology.
The on going influx of new words in the English language (for
example) helps make it a rich field for investigation into language change,
despite the difficulty of defining precisely and accurately the vocabulary
available to speakers of English. Throughout its history English has not only borrowed words from other
languages but has re-combined and recycled them to create new meanings, whilst losing some old words.
Phonetic and
phonological changes
Main articles:
sound change and phonological
change
The concept of
sound change covers both
phonetic and phonological
developments. The sociolinguist William Labov recorded the
change in pronunciation
in a relatively short period in the American resort of Martha’s
Vineyard and showed how this resulted from social tensions and
processes.Even in the relatively short time that broadcast media have recorded
their work, one can observe the difference between the pronunciation
of the newsreaders of the 1940s and the 1950s and the pronunciation of today.
The greater acceptance and fashionability of regional accents in media may[original research?] also
reflect a more democratic, less formal society — compare the widespread
adoption of language
policies.
Spelling
changes
Standardisation
of spelling originated
relatively recently.[citation needed] Differences in spelling
often catch the eye of a reader of a text from a previous century. The
pre-print era had fewer literate
people: languages lacked fixed systems of orthography, and the handwritten
manuscripts that survive often show words spelled according to regional
pronunciation and to personal preference.
Semantic
changes
Semantic
changes include
- pejoration, in which a term acquires a negative association
- amelioration, in which a term acquires a positive association
- widening, in which a term acquires a broader meaning
- narrowing, in which a term acquires a narrower meaning
CHAPTER IV
CONCLUTION
·
Morphology is concerned with the internal structure of words and the rules for
forming words from their subparts, which are called morphemes.
·
Language Change according to William Caxton is (ca. 1415~1422 – ca. March
1492) was an English merchant, diplomat, writer and printer. As far as is
known, he was the first English person to work as a printer and the first to
introduce a printing press into
England. He was also the first English retailer of printed books (his London
contemporaries in the same trade were all Dutch, German or French).
·
Types of language change:
v
Lexical changes
v
Phonetic and phonological changes
v
Spelling changes
v
Semantic changes
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Wardaugh Ronald, 1992, An Introduction to
Sociolinguistics,, Cambridge USA : blackwell oxford uk.
Matthews, P. H. 1972. Inflectional morphology. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_change
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